The Eastern and Southern Africa region

The Eastern and Southern Africa (ESA) region covers about a 14.5 m km 2 area spread over twenty countries (excluding island states of Mauritius and Seychelles) extending from Sudan in the north to South Africa in the south. The semi-arid region accounts for nearly 30% of this land area. The region presents a wide range of agroclimatic conditions from deserts to wet tropical, and from coastal plains to high mountains, and is endowed with rich water resources including large rivers and lakes. The diversity of agro-ecologies present in the region makes it possible to cultivate a wide variety of crops, from traditional subsistence crops such as maize and vegetables, to cash crops such as cotton, sugar, cashew nuts, fruits, tobacco, and spices. Despite the availability of abundant natural resources, poverty is widespread across the region and is increasing – a clear indication of the region's inability to utilize the natural capital for creating wealth and well-being of the people in the region.

Semi-arid areas of ESA

A proper description of the environment is essential for better targeting the research. These agro-climatic zones are the most optimal units to target agricultural research because they provide the right potential environments for agriculture. A number of approaches and methods ranging from simple ratios of rainfall to potential evapotranspiration to specialized assessments using complex crop simulation models and remote sensing data were used to define and demarcate various agro-climatic zones. Since its inception, ICRISAT has accepted the climatic classification of Troll (1965) as the working definition for its mandate region. This classification is ecologically oriented, emphasizes the length of the dry season, and the length and quality of the wet season, all of which are relevant for improved agricultural production and soil water management. Troll defined a humid month simply as one in which mean rainfall exceeds potential evapotranspiration. The term "semi-arid" was not invented by Troll. It was introduced by Thornthwaite (1948), and later used by Meigs (1953) in the preparation of world arid zone maps. Troll's agroclimatic classification adequately describes the hygric environment for crop production in tropics. It takes into account rainfall adequacy to meet the evapotranspiration needs and is therefore oriented to agronomic management. The relevant classes devised by Troll are:

•  Dry/wet semi-arid climates with 4.5-7.0 humid months.

•  Dry semi-arid climates with 2.0-4.5 humid months

More recently, UNCCD adopted an approach in which four dryland subtypes - dry subhumid, semiarid, arid and hyperarid subtypes - based on an increasing level of aridity, were recognized. The level of aridity is assessed by the “Aridity Index” which is the long-term mean of the ratio of annual precipitation to mean potential evapotranspiration (See table in “Extent and Distribution” section).

Extent and distribution:

The estimates of global distribution of semi-arid tropics may vary depending on the criteria used to characterize the environment. Using Troll's definition Ryan (1974) estimated the total SAT area spread over 48 countries on four continents to be about 19.6 m km 2 . The region covers much of the Africa continent stretching in a broad band from west to east below the Sahara desert, and including much of eastern and south central Africa. In Asia it includes most of India (single largest SAT area of any country), northeastern Myanmar and Thailand. Most of Northern Australia, nearly all of Mexico, and large portions of Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam, French Guinea, Brazil, Paraguay, and Bolivia also lie within the region. Of these countries all but Australia are developing.

The most recent and most widely quoted classification of drylands is the one developed by Land Degradation Assessment in Drylands (LADA), an international UN initiative, supported by the Global Environment Facility (GEF), UNEP and the Global Mechanism of the UNCCD and FAO, and is being executed by FAO. The methodology uses aridity index to classify environments and according to this methodology the global SAT area is 22.59 m km 2 .

Climate type	Aridity index	Area m km 2	Share of global (%)
Hyper arid	<0.05	9.78	6.6
Arid	0.05-0.20	15.66	10.6
Semi-arid	0.20-0.50	22.59	15.2
Dry subhumid	0.50-0.65	12.87	8.7

 

What is the extent and distribution of semi-arid tropics in ESA?

The most recent estimate of SAT area was done by Ryan and Spencer (2001). They used the TAC/FAO definition of the semi-arid tropics (TAC 1992). The criterion for this classification was as follows:

•  Length of growing period 75-180 days

•  All months have a mean monthly temperature >18ºC (ie, the Tropics)

•  Daily mean temperature during the growing period >20ºC.

According to their estimate, there are 15 countries in the ESA region with SAT areas ranging from 10 to 67% of the country's total land area. The total SAT area in these countries was estimated at 3.1 m km 2 . These are compared with LADA (FAO-UNCCD) estimates of arid, semi-arid and dry subhumid areas in the table below.

 

 

Developing countries with semi-arid tropical environments in ESA region

Country	Total area (‘000 km 2 )	Ryan and Spencer estimate SAT area (‘000 km 2 )	FAO-UNCCD estimate
Arid (‘000 km 2 )	Semi-arid (‘000 km 2 )	Dry subhumid (‘000 km 2 )
Angola	1,252	289	14	85	367
Botswana	580	200	62	186	10
Eritrea	122	27	8	46	0
Ethiopia	1,132	186	210	170	250
Kenya	584	100	111	178	100
Madagascar	595	131	0	85	272
Malawi	119	18	0	0	67
Mozambique	789	360	9	77	117
Namibia	826	181	58	274	12
Sudan	2,490	742	256	408	459
Swaziland	17	1.8	0	0	8
Tanzania	945	308	0	14	395
Uganda	243	39	0	0	0
Zambia	755	259	0	2	643
Zimbabwe	391	262	2	98	255

Sources: Ryan and Spencer (2001) and FAO-UNCCD

What is the extent and distribution of ICRISAT mandate crops in ESA?

Groundnut ( Arachis hypogaea L.):

Groundnut, also known as peanut, is one of the world's principal oilseed crops, widely grown in areas ranging from latitude 40ºN to 40ºS. In most countries in Africa, the crop is grown in semi-subsistence by smallholder farmers with no irrigation and almost no inputs other than land and labor. In Eastern and Southern Africa groundnut is grown under a wide range of agroecological conditions (altitude: from sea level to over 1500 m, rainfall 300-1000 mm) but production is concentrated in low and highly variable rainfall.

For more information on Groundnut Facts, click here (give the link to the Crops/groundnut page here)

Groundnut area, yield and production in ESA region:

Country	Area (ha)			Yield (kg/ha)			Prod (t)
	1980-82	1990-92	2000-02	1980-82	1990-92	2000-02	1980-82	1990-92	2000-02
Angola	38667	31000	68596	500	500	337	19333	15500	23257
Botswana	2940	1100	1243	401	504	1027	1215	563	1277
Burundi	13000	14667	12000	846	948	732	11000	13900	8788
DR Congo	495533	660598	473746	696	811	778	344700	535733	368658
Eritrea			1531	0	0	852			1286
Ethiopia			15595	0	0	864			13475
Ethiopia PDR	33567	42333		940	1252	0	31667	53000
Kenya	7959	20137	17000	595	554	1765	4830	11349	30000
Madagascar	36712	42597	47463	943	670	743	34582	27467	35242
Malawi	250000	60850	185380	703	663	757	175667	40033	140718
Mauritius	467	492	121	3515	2926	2797	1622	1442	338
Mozambique	340000	331925	255105	375	315	438	127667	105033	111185
Namibia	0	900	524	0	886	451	0	817	237
Rwanda	18390	9270	14710	941	765	610	17316	7092	9027
Sudan	849345	332561	1448080	743	678	744	635000	227667	1068000
Swaziland	1966	2549	5503	393	1417	742	796	3667	4085
Tanzania	94000	110000	117000	596	591	641	56000	65000	75000
Uganda	108333	183333	206000	768	816	701	83333	149667	144333
Zambia	25245	65000	121921	534	378	370	13537	24593	45130
Zimbabwe	210000	181667	262700	488	458	599	102616	86722	157543

 

Pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan L.):

Pigeonpea is an important pulse crop of the tropics and sub-tropics, grown between latitudes 30 0 S and 30 0 N and at elevations ranging from sea level to 2000 m. It is mainly grown in developing countries, in areas prone to drought on degraded soils. The crop provides yield stability, particularly in drought prone environments where the less drought tolerant cereals often fail. Its deep root system allows for optimum moisture and nutrient utilization. Pigeonpea offers multiple benefits – protein rich seed (approximately 21% protein), fuel, fodder, and fencing material, improved soil fertility and erosion control. In Eastern and Southern Africa, three pigeonpea maturity groups are recognized; long-duration, medium-duration, and short-duration. Short-duration varieties are semi-determinate and mature in 120 days while the medium- and long-duration types are indeterminate and take 160-300 days to mature. Short-duration determinate varieties are day length-insensitive while the medium- and long-duration types are sensitive to both day length and temperature. Short-duration varieties have the highest yield potential while medium- and long-duration varieties are similar.

For more information on Pigeonpea Facts,click here (insert a link to the Crops/pigeonpea page here).

Pigeonpea area, yield and production in ESA region:

Country	Area (ha)			Yield (kg/ha)			Prod (t)
	1980-82	1990-92	2000-02	1980-82	1990-92	2000-02	1980-82	1990-92	2000-02
Burundi	2350	2300	2000	1080	1058	900	2543	2433	1800
Kenya	0	0	155667	0	0	365	0	0	57000
Malawi	115333	100000	123000	668	597	642	77000	60000	79000
Tanzania	36667	56000	66000	618	676	712	22667	37667	47000
Uganda	55000	61333	78000	480	826	1000	26333	50667	78000

 

Chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.):

By the end of the 20 th Century, chickpea was the third most important pulse crop in the world after dry bean and dry pea. There are two main types of chickpea: desi, which constitutes about 85% and kabuli, which accounts for the remaining 15% of the total grain production. Chickpea is a temperate crop, but is grown more in the subtropical areas of the world. More recently, the cultivation of the crop has moved to tropical areas where it is grown under cool temperatures. Chickpea has many beneficial characteristics such as drought resistance, symbiotic nitrogen fixation, high protein content, and is rich in phosphorus and calcium. About 95% of the total chickpea area is in developing countries. ICRISAT has achieved a breakthrough in desi-type chickpea improvement by breeding wilt resistant, extra-short duration varieties that can grow under the harshest conditions in Eastern Africa.

For more information on Chickpea Facts click here. (insert the link for Crops/chickpea here)

Chickpea area, yield and production in ESA region:

Country	Area (ha)			Yield (kg/ha)			Prod (t)
	1980-82	1990-92	2000-02	1980-82	1990-92	2000-02	1980-82	1990-92	2000-02
Eritrea			12003	0	0	366			4328
Ethiopia			197500	0	0	881			173590
Ethiopia PDR	152833	119203		803	923	0	123564	110040
Kenya	0	0	51667	0	0	349	0	0	18000
Malawi	27500	99647	88000	655	370	398	18000	36938	35000
Sudan	810	1550	12460	1105	999	2162	900	1550	27000
Tanzania	28333	63000	63333	293	327	389	8333	20667	24667
Uganda	4000	6333	6300	589	500	524	2333	3167	3300

 

Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L.):

Sorghum is one of the main staples for the world's poorest and most food-insecure people, and is the world's fifth most important cereal, in terms of both production and area planted. The crop is genetically suited to hot and dry agroecologies where it is difficult to grow other food grains. These are also areas subject to frequent drought. In many of these agroecologies, sorghum is truly a dual- purpose crop; both grain and stover are highly valued outputs. In large parts of the developing world, stover represents up to 50 percent of the total value of the crop, especially in drought years.

Developing countries account for roughly 90 percent of the world's sorghum area and 70 percent of total output. Asia and Africa each account for about 25-30 percent of global production. Much of the crop is grown by small-scale farming households operating at the margins of subsistence. Production in Africa remains characterized by low productivity and extensive, low-input cultivation. On both continents, sorghum is grown primarily for food. In contrast, in the developed countries, almost all sorghum production is used as animal feed.

For more information on Sorghum Facts click here. (insert link for Crops/sorghum here).

Sorghum area, yield and production in ESA region:

Country	Area (ha)			Yield (kg/ha)			Prod (t)
	1980-82	1990-92	2000-02	1980-82	1990-92	2000-02	1980-82	1990-92	2000-02
Botswana	96700	99267	86828	186	302	163	20423	29060	13774
Burundi	52333	58000	54000	1000	1125	1254	52333	65233	67767
DR Congo	36833	77667	87667	900	644	673	33133	50000	59000
Eritrea			159502	0	0	357			56399
Ethiopia			1172620	0	0	1223			1431930
Ethiopia PDR	946083	572223		1496	1295	0	1420170	744132
Kenya	126867	144748	126524	903	818	706	116433	112468	90048
Lesotho	56464	28687	35630	769	721	995	44391	21858	34717
Madagascar	3122	2000	2000	393	600	483	1198	1200	967
Malawi	30000	29839	54511	667	414	690	20000	12655	37587
Mozambique	316667	427595	452370	625	312	649	196667	133454	292529
Namibia	30000	30200	21663	213	216	349	6400	6967	7568
Rwanda	168490	147807	177149	1165	1034	971	195204	153401	171787
Sudan	3466080	4686530	4980080	698	594	641	2434333	2934333	3235667
Swaziland	2008	826	1000	585	710	600	1150	599	600
Tanzania	587630	554357	650931	1031	1034	1143	505000	554376	744543
Uganda	179000	244983	282333	1674	1494	1429	296333	366000	403667
Zambia	24317	40193	27688	600	462	756	14312	17846	21015
Zimbabwe	181433	107816	165077	524	558	591	91595	63251	97876

 

Millet (Pennisetum glaucum L.):

Millet is a collective term referring to a number of small-seeded annual grasses that are cultivated as grain crops, primarily on marginal lands in dry areas in temperate, subtropical and tropical regions. It is the world's seventh most important cereal grain. The most important species are pearl millet, finger millet, proso millet and foxtail millet. Pearl millet accounts for almost half of global millet production. It is the most important species of millet both in terms of cropped area and contributions to food security in regions of Africa and Asia that can produce little else. Finger millet is widely produced in the cooler, higher- altitude regions of Africa and Asia both as a food crop and as a preferred input for traditional beer. Proso millet is important for bird seed in the developed countries and for food in parts of Asia. Foxtail millet is important in parts of Asia (mainly China) and Europe. The other species (barnyard, kodo and little millets, the fonios and teff) are locally important food grains restricted to smaller regions or individual countries. The various species differ in their physical characteristics, quality attributes, soil and climatic requirements and growth duration.

Developing countries, mainly in Asia and Africa, account for about 94 percent of global output, estimated at some 28 million tons. Of this, pearl millet accounts for about 15 million tons, foxtail millet for 5 million tons, proso millet for 4 million tons and finger millet for over 3 million tons. Almost all millet is produced by small-scale farmers for household consumption and localized trade. Pearl millet, in particular, is critically important for food security in some of the world's hottest, driest cultivated areas.

In most parts of the world, millet is grown as a subsistence crop for local consumption. Commercial millet production is risky, especially in Africa, because the absence of large market outlets means that fluctuations in output cause significant price fluctuations, particularly in areas where millet is the main food crop. Apart from grain production, millet is also cultivated for grazing, green fodder or silage. Livestock are an important component of most millet production systems, and millet crop residues contribute significantly to fodder supplies. Some popular landrace varieties in India, for example, are over 3-meter tall, and are valued for the large amount of fodder they provide, even though grain yields are relatively low.

For more information on Millet Facts click here. (insert link to Crops/millet page here)

Millet area, yield and production in ESA region:

Country	Area (ha)			Yield (kg/ha)			Prod (t)
	1980-82	1990-92	2000-02	1980-82	1990-92	2000-02	1980-82	1990-92	2000-02
Angola	80000	135333	242958	654	510	523	52333	68167	124162
Botswana	10133	6767	6133	163	162	174	1777	1150	1067
Burundi	10000	12167	9167	1000	1101	1070	10000	13400	9794
DR Congo	36833	57825	53295	669	611	661	24633	35312	35229
Eritrea			40384	0	0	335			13534
Ethiopia			329746	0	0	964			314642
Ethiopia PDR	225077	158180		914	1051	0	205395	167553
Kenya	68887	115838	96481	807	542	465	57427	63023	44749
Malawi	13000	16443	34220	583	422	592	7667	7099	20274
Mozambique	20000	19000	96581	250	265	561	5000	5000	53857
Namibia	141667	148667	229172	249	269	287	35333	39667	66018
Rwanda	3485	3333	5000	583	389	800	1991	1000	4000
Sudan	1106135	1112818	2370000	316	231	233	357000	280667	551667
Tanzania	366643	247519	234333	1110	919	1032	336667	220926	241833
Uganda	303000	384333	380667	1487	1534	1497	446667	590000	569333
Zambia	25000	56912	55551	652	607	737	15897	35044	40830
Zimbabwe	308381	238848	150224	445	393	220	138570	97317	33526

Data source for various tables: FAO database